A Backstory of John Keats: A Romantic Poet

John Keats was born into the Romantic Era and developed his poetic skills through a series of trial and error attempts. Keats was born in October of 1795 in London. His early childhood was spent attending school, and mourning the loss of his father at the age of eight. His career as a poet did not begin until he left his career in apothecary.

The Romantic Era brought forth a wave of change for poetry. Keats and other poets of the time developed a style of poetry that tested the waters for future poets. The poetry that was created was full of imagery and allegorical themes that acknowledged the existence of the supernatural. A lot of the poetry was filled with sexual and physical passion that was mixed with cynical and tortured allusions. These poets were responsible for the modern thoughts that we have that poets are tortured and their poetry is filled with sexual tension and ambiguous meanings.

(Photo below: Four major Romantic Era poets) 

John Keats early writing was influenced by the other poets that he worked with, and his first volume of poems called Poems by John Keats was highly critiqued and almost ended John Keats' career as a poet. To read more on the history of Keats, click here.

One of Keats later poems that was published after his death was Isabella or The Pot of Basil. This poem was in response to Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio's The Decameron. The Decameron was finished in 1353 and was considered a frame story. The series of stories that were featured in Boccaccio's piece were specifically tales of erotic and tragic love stories. John Keats specifically focuses on the short story about The Decameron (IV, 5) where Lisabette's brothers slay her lover. The story reveals that her lover's ghost appears in her dreams showing where his body is buried. Lisabette then searches for his body, and brings back his head. She plants the head in a pot to hide it from her brothers. She weeps over the loss of her lover for awhile, and  her brothers eventually learn of the pot and take it away. This leads to Lisabette's destruction and she dies.

Below are some images that have been formed from John Keats poem Isabella or The Pot of Basil.

The pictures all portray a version of Isabella hugging the basil pot that has her lover's head buried in it. 

Keats' version of The Decameron elaborates on the same version of this story. Keats begins this poem by putting the poem in Lorenzo's (the lover) perspective. The reader is only experiencing Lorenzo's feelings of love for Isabella. For example, we see how deep and desirous Lorenzo's love is for Isabella when he discusses what he would do to tell Isabella his feelings:

'And yet I will, and tell my love all plain:

'If looks speak love-laws, I will drink her tears,

'And at the least 'twill startle off her cares. ' (191).

The transition of the story turns by following the same story that Boccaccio created. The brother's find out about the romance between Isabella and Lorenzo and plot to murder him. They successfully follow through with their disposal of Lorenzo. However, Keats' uses this point of the poem to show the tension between different patriarchal structures and class tension. The poem also reveal that Isabella is required to marry a wealthy man. However, the poem then transitions into the point of view of Isabella's love. The story follows the same story of Lorenzo coming to Isabella and her seeking where his body is buried. The story finishes by Isabella finding Lorenzo's body and then planting the head of Lorenzo.The brothers become aware of the pot and get rid of the pot. The loss of the pot results in the death of Isabella. 

Keats uses this poem ambiguously alludes this poem as a example of dangerously, intense love.

What aspects of the Romantic Era poetry differentiate from the traditional poetry at the time? What does the emphasis of the supernatural play in the poetry of the Romantic Era?

How does Keats' version of Isabella change from Boccaccio's story? Why do you think Keats' chose this story? What events or emotions could have influenced Keats' in writing this? Why do you think this poem was successful?

The Uniqueness of Christabel and Her Influence

Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem Christabel sets a solid standard for Romantic poetry. It is filled with all aspects of the Romantic influence, such as strongly portrayed emotions, detailed imagery involving all of the senses, presence in and awe of nature, and the internal workings of the characters. Unlike Wordsworth, who usually concentrates on the real and natural side of Romanticism, Coleridge uses airs of the supernatural in his works. With these as his themes, Coleridge weaves a poem wondrous in many ways: in story, in imagery, and in sound.

Probably the most influential part of this poem, in my opinion, is the sound. It is hard to pinpoint a rhyme scheme that is true for the entire poem, as the stanza structure changes throughout the poem. Sometimes he uses AABBCCDD, at others ABABCC. This mixture of stanza and rhyme styles is quite interesting to listen to and draws the reader in. One of the main ideas of the Romantic movement is that a writer should express things in new creative and imaginative ways. By mixing different length stanzas and varying rhyme schemes in this single poem, Coleridge creates his own unique poetic style, achieving one of the most desired aspects of Romanticism, free and individual expression.

The themes of the poem combined with the varying rhyme scheme, create a certain mood, dark and eerie and filled with awe and anxiety. As I was reading the poem, I could not help but think of two poems that reminded me of Christabel. These are Alfred Noyes’ The Highwayman and Edgar Allan Poe’s Annabel Lee. Poe works were published in the 1840s, thirty years after Coleridge published Christabel. Noyes’ poem, however, was not written until much later, and was published in 1906. These other two poems seem strongly influenced by Coleridge’s Christabel.

Theme-wise, the similarities of the poems include natural places and strong emotions such as fear, longing, and sorrow. Christabel takes place in the courtyard of a manor and focuses for part of the poem on an oak tree. Highwayman maintains focus in the countryside, which Romantics preferred over towns and cities. Annabel Lee is written to take place in kingdom by the sea. Strong emotions and responses to emotions are another important aspect of the poems. Coleridge’s poem deals with several very powerful emotions. It contains fear, wonderment, and sorrow. Noyes’ poem contains all that but wonderment, as Bess fears for the unnamed highwayman and his sorrow at her loss. Poe, too, follows suit but replaces fear with longing. In Annabel Lee, the speaker longs for his lost love, and sorrow for her as well, but expresses a kind of awe that he experiences when he remembers Annabel Lee. (It is also interesting to note the similarity between "Christabel" and "Annabel Lee".)

For fun, here's a link to an Epic Rap Battle of History with Edgar Allan Poe.

Discussion Questions:
Is the varying rhyme scheme effective to you? How about the varying stanza lengths? What are some specific examples within the poem that really shows the Romantic nature?

Examining Prayer in Christabel

Christabel is a poem that is home to many features which one could examine with great interest. It is a poem filled with depth, both in the words employed by it's creator and the images it can inspire in the minds of it's readers. Samuel Taylor Coleridge's use of prayer is one facet of Christabel that cannot be ignored. It seems to be present in many important moments in the poem. Coleridge's use of the act of prayer represents a peaceful serenity that is opposite to content that is darker and profane.

Praying in the novel is an important symbol for readers to grasp from the beginning. The poem features Christabel as she "kneels beneath the huge oak tree" in the beginning of the poem. This is the first the reader is introduced to the character. It does seem to be an unusual way to introduce a character. When one prays, he or she is often stationary and alone for a significant period of time.

Christabel went to the wood to pray for her lover who is away when the poem starts. Coleridge is trying to tell his readers something about Christabel. He is introducing a character who loves the people in her life so much that she would go kneel down near a tree and pray for a period of time, just so they come back safely. Coleridge is introducing us to a character who acts selflessly, despite her position in society.

The beginning is not the only part of the poem where Christabel is seen praying. The beginning of the conclusion of part one features Christabel praying at the base of an old oak tree. The tree is described as being caught in shadows and being a part of a darker area of the forest. This moment of reflection and prayer depicts Christabel as a very beautiful person. Prayer here is used to highlight the physical perfections of her character. Her palms are described as slender. Her face is called fair. Her eyes are described as bright and blue. These are all honest descriptions of Christabel. It is as though a light from the sun has shone on her as she is praying to make her sound even more beautiful.

Christabel praying is a scene that can be considered a completely opposite scenario when compared to other instances in the poem. Sir Leoline "found his lady dead" at the beginning of Part II. This scene is much more darker and morose compared to Christabel praying in the woods. Christabel is a temporary inhabitant in her own world or prayer, completely free from any of the worries or stress she inherits when she arrives back at the castle. This juxtaposition shows us that peace and tranquility is just as vital to one's personal health as it seems.

I think its interesting that Coleridge would introduce the a character who is praying at the beginning of his poem because praying oftentimes is associated with religion. While there is a solemnity to prayer, the reader can interject his or her own religion and prayer if it is not explicitly noted. This  provides the reader with a personal stake that helps one connect to the story.

Discussion Questions:
What are other reasons why Coleridge used prayer in Christabel? Are there any other religious overtones the poet uses in his story? How can they be interpreted? What are some themes

How do the religious aspects of the novel shape Christabel as a character? Do they take away or add to her own character development?

Juxtapositions in Coleridge’s “Christabel”: Who or What is Geraldine?

Samuel Coleridge's unfinished poem "Christabel" concerns itself with the emerging sexuality of its heroine and her relationship to the mysterious Geraldine, a character who both influences and is defined by her counterpart.  Reading this poem for the first time, I was struck by conflicting themes represented by Geraldine. She becomes for Christabel the manifestation of purity and sexuality, religiosity and corruption, even femininity and masculinity.  However, I do not believe her ambivalent, yet increasingly sinister, role in the poem to be the result of her own erratic behavior,  Indeed, it is Christabel’s unresolved interpretation of Geraldine that makes her seem at some points so innocent and at others, so wicked.  Geraldine appears to me as Christabel’s sexual other, someone who Christabel desires, yet at the same time, fears to be.

Geraldine enters the poem a fallen woman.  After being seized by five warriors and left by an oak tree, she is found by Christabel, who ventured late into the woods to pray for her betrothed knight.  Geraldine is found "drest in a silken robe of white / That shadowy in the moonlight shone" (83).  After hearing Geraldine's horrific account and learning that she is of noble birth, Christabel instantly sympathizes with her, perhaps seeing her own virginal purity in the white-clad woman.  However, it soon becomes clear to the reader that Geraldine is not another innocent heroine.  A series of strange occurrences, beginning with the description of her pale skin and "blue-veined feet unsandal'd," (83) and continuing with her unwillingness to pray to the virgin Mary, the strange wailing of the dog, and the reigniting of the flame, all reveal an unseen power to Geraldine.  As the women approach the castle, Geraldine sinks in pain, and "Christabel with might and main / Lifted her up, a weary weight, / Over the threshold of the gate" (85).  Geraldine moves freely as soon as she enters the castle, and the physical act of carrying Geraldine forces Christabel to take on a masculine role. 

Geraldine again wavers between masculinity and femininity as the women enter Christabel's chamber.  Deciding to pray before bed, Geraldine stands before a carved angel while Christabel tries to sleep.  However, instead of prayer, she witnesses Geraldine, with her eyes rolling around in her head, and a short intake of breath, drop her robe in front of her.  This act of sexuality in place of religious duty openly mocks Christabel's piety throughout the beginning of the poem.  After most likely being raped by the gang of men, Geraldine is conscious of the way men view the female body.  Seeing nothing but purity in Christabel, Geraldine  promises that she "wilt know to-morrow, / This mark of my shame, this seal of my sorrow," (89) essentially pledging to introduce her to the condemned world of female sexuality.  Christabel awakens the next morning feeling as though she has committed an unknown sin, and prays dutifully.

Geraldine's dark intentions remain unseen by Christabel until her meeting with Sir Leoline the following morning.  The baron shows Geraldine particular attention and Christabel, after hearing the bard Bracy's dream of the green snake, realizes that she is the dove, soon to be consumed by the viper.  Geraldine's eyes then appear to be "shrunk in her head, / Each shrunk up to a serpent's eye, / And with somewhat of malice, and more of dread, At Cristabel she looked askance," (97).  The serpent imagery conveys masculinity, sexuality, and knowledge, behaviors that Christabel has both been ignorant of and denied.  She falls into a "dizzy trance" and shuddering "aloud, with a hissing sound," (97) Christabel unleashes the darker part of herself, realizing at once that her fears were within herself.  She attempts to repress these feelings again, urging her father to send Geraldine away, but it only angers him.

Coleridge's characterization of Geraldine is interesting to me because she seems to be paradoxically bound to both purity and sexuality.  Given the sudden ending of the poem, it is difficult not to wonder how Christabel's knowledge of herself and Geraldine would have affected her situation.  How Christabel chooses to handle herself in future confrontations between herself and Geraldine, her father, or even her betrothed knight would perhaps have established Geraldine's ultimate purpose in the poem.

I was searching online for artistic representations of "Christabel" and found, other than the two images I posted, this music video named after, and influenced by, the poem.

Discussion Questions

What role do you think the men (the baron, the bard, the knight) play in fueling or discouraging Christabel's sexual awakening?  How does Geraldine influence this?

If we take Geraldine to be the sexual other of Christabel, what purpose do you think she would have played in the remainder of the poem?  Who, if either, would have overpowered the other in the end?

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Domestic, Psychological, or Radical Critique: Understanding Radcliffe’s Motives

As one finishes a novel, the emotions the ending pages inflict upon the reader are important to analyze in order to realize what the author was trying to achieve. Nevertheless, these emotions only constitute the surface, for they don’t quite give us insight on the purpose of the novel as a whole. Elizabeth A. Fay delves deep into this question in A Feminist Introduction to Romanticism dividing the Gothic novels into three main categories: the domestic (or external), the psychological (or internal), and a combination of both known as radical critique Gothic. Fay goes on to classify Ann Radcliffe’s A Sicilian Romance as domestic, for according to Fay, Radcliffe sets her focus on the tyrannical rule which is imposed upon most of the characters by the Marquis or other male figures, leaving the psychological drives of her characters out of the matter.

In a manner, I believe that Fay is correct on marking Radcliffe’s novel as domestic; however, it’s important to understand why she does so. It’s true that the patriarchal system from which Julia wishes to escape from is a predominant theme, and is a common focus of criticism throughout Gothic novels. Yet one can’t overlook the importance of the main heroine in this novel, for Julia, despite following all of the standards a woman at the time was held up to in her mannerisms and character, she still decided to break away from what society was demanding of her. In other words, she was the perfect role model, complacent with her place and position in life, yet she still chose love over her place in society. This showed that one didn't have to be of a rebellious disposition from the start in order to defy the patriarchal system. Fay goes on to confirm how Radcliffe challenges this patriarchal system stating, “Radcliffe ultimately defied the position women held in society, for her heroine’s most often would purify their homes by remaining pure themselves… and ended up owning several homes.”

Yet, it’s for this reason, the natural grace and properness of Julia that the novel fails to be a psychological Gothic. She has trouble deciding whether she should run away with Hippolitus for the social implications this would have on them (If she fled with Hippolitus, she would avoid one evil, and encounter another. She would escape the dreadful destiny awaiting her, but must, perhaps, sully the purity of that reputation, which was dearer to her than existence. p. 62). Unlike other heroines, such as Austen’s Jane Eyre who actively defies society and thinks in a much more progressive manner, Julia remains tied to these social constraints and only breaks away from them when urged by others.

However, A Sicilian Romance doesn't seem to be void of a psychological development within the characters, for there seems to be a certain defiance in the way they think against their society. Such is the case of Ferdinand, who despite being brought up by his father, resists his power and sides immediately with Julia’s cause. The Marchioness is also an important figure who challenges the classic feminine model, for she thinks on her own accord, not constricting herself to what social norm dictates. 

Discussion Questions:
1. If viewing A Sicilian Romance as a Domestic Gothic, then what exactly was Radcliffe denouncing? Was it simply Patriarchy or was there more?
2. Does Julia show any power over the patriarchal system she lives in? Does she truly defy the feminine role at the time?
3.  Do you think Julia would have attempted to escape both times on her own accord?

Importance, Naturalness and Femaleness: Using Fay as an Access Point to Radcliffe

In “Women and the Gothic: Literature as Home Politics,” Elizabeth Fay brings numerous Gothic novelists into her discussion of the role of women within the genre. Within this course we have already been exposed to one of the novelists she spends the most time with: Ann Radcliffe. Throughout our discussion of Radcliffe the class brought up several themes Fay addresses in her paper, including the sublime, the focus on a villainous patriarch or patriarchal institution, the tendency to set the plot in a remote location, and the beautiful heroine. However, Fay provides a new access point for the discussion and appreciation of Radcliffe’s take on the Gothic novel, so in this post I summarize Fay's views on the Gothic in conjunction with Ann Radcliffe and then relate them to what we have seen in A Sicilian Romance.

(Portrait of Ann Radcliffe)

The Gothic, and more specifically women within the Gothic, were heavily influenced by the realities of what it meant to be a woman at the time of writing. For someone like Radcliffe who was writing relatively early on in the movement there was still a sense of hope to her writing. A Sicilian Romance (1790) ends with the line “Thus surrounded by her children and friends, and engaged in forming the minds of the infant generation, she seemed to forget that she had ever been otherwise happy” (Radcliffe 199). After the excitement of discovering the marchioness as well as Hippolitus are alive, Julia will get to live in peace, even if she is still living under the patriarchy. The important thing is the hope that the patriarchy she is immersed in now it kinder to her.  

Upon first reading this seems like an appropriate, if boring ending to the novel. However, Fay brings up that the French Revolution was occurring while Radcliffe was writing and the social upheaval of the time would have heavily influenced her voice. The social upheaval of the French Revolution brought with it the possibility of change for women and how they were seen by society.  With this context we know Radcliffe is not pushing an idyllic ending into the void with the hope that one day people will read it and change. Instead, she is calling out to what a future might look like should the revolution have an effect on the roles of women as well as examining the “possibilities that social upheaval offers women” (Fay 124).

   Another topic touched on is Radcliffe’s relationship with the sublime. Other resources on the topic, “On the Supernatural in Poetry” and A Sicilian Romance, were both written by Radcliffe herself. Fay offers an outsiders view on Radcliffe’s use of the sublime. However, before moving into the sublime, it is worth mentioning another woman publishing Gothic literature a few years prior to Radcliffe: Clara Reeve. Clara Reeve published her novel The Old English Baron in 1778, early enough that Radcliffe would have been familiar with it at the time of writing. Perhaps as a result of this, Radcliffe and Reeve were both concerned with “distinguishing her works in terms of its moral quality” (Fay 126). It seems likely that Radcliffe would have drawn from her predecessor in categorizing her heroines as morally superior, which is why it is significant that Radcliffe would have broken away from Reeve in her use of the sublime. 

 Fay points out that where Reeve’s influence did not extend was into Radcliffe’s use of terror over horror. When Radcliffe writes the sublime she does so in a way that heavily incorporates terror, because to her terror is a manifestation of the sublime. In one scene, as Julia is being taken to an abandoned castle, Radcliffe attempts to make the reader feel her terror, “the gloom of the place inspired terrific images. Julia trembled as she entered; and her emotion was heightened, when she perceived at some distance, through the long perspective of the trees, a large ruinous mansion” (Radcliffe 111). In this moment Radcliffe builds a sense of wonder that builds and takes the reader and Julia into themselves as a result of the greater magnitude of the castle. Fay discusses this use terror in the Gothic in her explanation of the external. External in relation to the gothic refers to and outside force that “drives inwards in order to intrude on the privacy and supposed protection of domestic space” (Fay 110), so Julia’s feeling at the sight of the castle is her feeling overwhelmed at the extent of the outside world and how it threatens her as an individual.

Having Fay’s explanation of the Gothic and Radcliffe in particular helps in understanding the way in which Radcliffe entered the genre and how she deviated from previous examples to make it her own. 

*For more information on the Gothic versus the Romantic, check out this.

*And on an only semi-related note, this song was going through my head the entire time I was               writing this because of the note about the French Revolution.   

Discussion Questions:

1. Do you think having the context provided by Fay helps in understanding the novel as a whole? Did the context change your opinion on Radcliffe's writing at all?  
2. Does having Radcliffe's style of the Gothic novel described as external make sense in relation to what we have read?
3. How does the definition of the sublime in relation to Radcliffe provided by Fay affect your understanding of the sublime.  

The Marquis and the Marchioness: Slave and Master

The relationship between the Marquis de Mazzini and his wife Maria de Vellorno is volatile, to say the least. They are both people driven by their uncontrollable passions. The Marquis, a haughty and prideful man, is the head patriarch of the castle. He is described as having "unlimited power of life and death in his own territories" by both his son and his first wife. Yet despite his seemingly unlimited power we are told in the first page that the Marquis is enslaved by his wife, "...he was governed by his wife. His passions were vehement, and she had the address to bend them to her own purpose; and so well to conceal her influence, that he thought himself most independent when he was most enslaved."

Throughout the book we see that the Marchioness is the one behind all of vital decisions that the Marquis makes. In fact, I would go as far as to say that all the major conflicts in the novel have their root in the Marchioness. She is the one who gave the Marquis the idea to marry Julia to the Duke du Luovo, she is the one who incensed the Marquis passion to scour the earth in search of Julia, and despite her ignorance of the first Marchioness's imprisonment, Maria is the one who drove the Marquis to attempt the murder Julia's mother by insulting his manhood and coercing him to act. (Radcliffe 184) Her unlimited control over the Marquis gives her incredible power. She is his master.

Yet despite her power and influence, she is still a woman living in a deeply patriarchal society. She only has power through her husband. Without him she has very little power to do anything. We have already discussed in class how, in the society described in Radcliffe's novel, the options that women have to choose from are dismal and limited: you get married, you get yourself to a nunnery, or you die. The second the Marquis loses favor with her, she becomes nothing. She becomes an object fit to be locked away in the deepest darkest cell in the castle of the Marquis. The fate of his first wife is all the evidence we need for that. 

This is Maria's struggle: the classic Hegelian struggle to be recognized as more than just an object for the Marquis's amusement. Maria is nothing like the Marquis's first wife. In fact she is initially described as being "of a character very opposite to her predecessor." (1) Of course that means that Maria does not have the benign, virtuous character of the first Marchioness, but it also means that Maria does not have her "benign and susceptible nature."  Maria is a woman of "infinite art, devoted to pleasure, and of an unconquerable spirit." She is a woman with a very strong sense of self. She knows what she wants, has the intelligence and cunning to get it, and she has the will to do whatever it takes to get it. Maria is good at what she does. She achieves agency for herself, she has the Marquis wrapped around her finger, and the Marquis is completely oblivious.

But her position is still very precarious. Like I mentioned before the day the Marquis decides he doesn't want her anymore is the day Maria loses all her agency and power. Maria must know this, yet she still decides to do all sorts of activities with various young cavaliers.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-3lKbMBab18

Why does she risk this? She knows the kind of man the Marquis is, why would she risk her life like that? Maria de Vellorno is a woman of pleasure. She does what she wants, and doing what she wants is what gives her agency. It's what makes her more than just arm candy for the Marquis. A life where she can't indulge every passion she has is not a life worth living. Also she must have been sure that the Marquis would never suspect. Not because she took every precaution possible, but because Maria knows exactly how entangled the Marquis is in her web. Her confidence is not unfounded as we see in the end of the novel.

The Marquis despite his pride and haughty manliness is psychologically dependent on Maria. The Marquis has committed horrible crimes for the sake of her. Losing her would mean that it was all for nothing. Even when the Marquis knows without a doubt that Maria is being unfaithful he just can't bring himself to get rid of her, "It seemed as if his desire of her affection increased with his knowledge of the loss of it; and the very circumstance which should have roused his aversion, by a strange perversity of disposition, appeared to heighten his passion, and to make him think it impossible he could exist without her" (187)

 The Marquis built his entire world around Maria, and conversely Maria built her whole world around the power that the Marquis gave her. Both of those worlds were built on shaky foundations, and when the storm came through they shattered with great violence. The Marquis threatened Maria with "a formal separation" (192) and this is what ultimately drove her to suicide. This formal separation would take away all of Maria's power and agency. She couldn't live like that, but she couldn't let the Marquis "triumph." She writes in her suicide note, "But the triumph shall no longer be yours--the draught you have drank was given by the hand of the injured." 

The Marquis is the one with the power of life and death in his dominions, but it was Maria de Vellorno who sentenced him to die.

Discussion Questions:

To what extent can the character of Maria de Vellorno be viewed as something more than a villain/vixen? Is there a way she can be read as a tragic hero?

If Maria had not poisoned the Marquis, what do you think the Marquis would have done about Maria's infidelity?

Why did Maria commit suicide in the way that she did? Why the poignard to the heart? Why not poison?

The Female Gothic: Radcliffe's Terror vs. Walpole's Horror

The "female gothic" genre was established in the 1790's when women were being suffocated of their legal and political rights as human beings. The "female gothic" varies from the regular genre of the gothic novel because it is a genre that is written specifically by women that is indirectly correcting the patriarchal restraints of society. The basic formula that a male written gothic follows highlights the extreme sensibility of the women but the main character is a male hero.

We see this "male hero" in the The Castle of Ortanto written by Horace Walpole. The gothic novel follows a basic formula where the male character, Manfred, is faced with the challenge of fulfilling a prophecy that will result in the end of his rule. The male character, Manfred, loses his son and becomes obsessed with the idea of marrying a younger woman, Isabella. His pursuit of Isabella is what adds horror and suspense to this gothic novel. Throughout the novel, Manfred comes close to exemplifying his male-dominance over Isabella by letting the readers believe that he will rape her. His overall goal is to force Isabella to bear a male heir in order for Manfred's rule to continue. The male gothic novel such as, The Castle of Ortanto, characterizes it's female character's to be extremely sensible and distraught by their emotions. Walpole also focuses on the physical aspect of the "horror" of the gothic novel. The horror is made aware to the reader when Manfred begins his pursuit of Isabella. As she flees, the reader is anticipating the rape of Isabella. The male lead character is actively engaging and adding to the horror of the novel.

To read more on the differences between horror and terror in Gothic novels, click here.

 Horror can be described or imagines by watching a violent act take place.

The woman in the novel are meant to represent how woman are to be "submissive and obedient" to all patriarchal power structures. Hippolita represents the traditional mold of how a woman was supposed to behave at the time. Her role was to obey and support her husband at all cost. Walpole portrays Hippolita as this tragic female character that is desperately fighting for her husband's affection. Walpole is consciously creating Hippolita with regards to the greek goddess Hippolyta. Hippolyta was a archaic women that is used to represent male dominance over a woman. (To see more examples of how other authors used Hippolyta click on the above link). Walpole creates the suspense for the reader on his ability to deconstruct the female characters, while at the same time, he is allowing the male characters to gain sympathy and justifies the violence that the men engage in.

A reader of both, The Castle of Otranto and A Sicilian Romance written by female author Ann Radcliffe, could argue that Radcliffe's gothic novel was written in response to Walpole's gothic novel. Radcliffe's plays into the humor of deconstructing the patriarchal structures in her novel. Her male characters are portrayed as making irrational and hasty decisions based on the emotional state that they are in. So, what makes Radcliffe's female gothic novel different from Walpole's gothic novel? Her ability to create a "female gothic" formula. This formula represents a lead female character that is lacking a maternal role in her life, defying a patriarchal power, and is seen a character that is in a constant state of motion. Unlike Walpole, Radcliffe creates a heroine instead of a hero. In A Sicilian Romance, Julia is the lead heroine is unaware that her mother is still alive. The female character is fleeing from an unpromising suitor (Duke de Luovo) and defying the patriarchal structure in place.

The female gothic novel differs from a male gothic novel because it is written by a female author with the intention to critique the patriarchal structures of society. Radcliffe also is responsible for reflecting terror in her novels vs. the horror of Walpole's novels. Radcliffe does this by her creation of her lead female character Julia. The "male chase" of Julia is what creates the terror aspect of Radcliffe's gothic novel. The constant suspense that Radcliffe creates is what makes her gothic novel differ from Walpole's novel. By placing Julia in motion, Radcliffe uses this as an excuse to make the reader subconscious of the sublimity of scenery and setting. This is Radcliffe's way of distinguishing her use of terror vs. horror. Walpole uses his castle to place his characters in this dark, eery place to set the scene for the upcoming horrific actions. Radcliffe uses the castle to terrify and create suspense for the reader. Radcliffe's terror awakens the reader's "unconscious mind." Her ability to tap into the reader's mind and create the suspense of her main character's destiny is how she effectively crafts her version of the gothic novel.

To exemplify the effects that horror can have: here is the trailer for Disney's Frozen if it were going to be a horror film.

And, here is the original trailer for "Frozen"

Discussion Questions:

How does Radcliffe's use of terror in her creation of Julia differ from Walpole's creation of Isabella? Where in Radcliffe's A Sicilian Romance, does she effectively use terror to set up the plot? Does it work for her? If she were to use more horror tactics than terror tactics, would it be as effective?

If Radcliffe chose to use a male lead character, instead of Julia, would her novel have the same result? Could she still successfully critique a patriarchal structure using a male lead character? How could she do this? Or why could she not do this?

In your own personal opinion, what makes terror differ from horror? Can you have one without the other? Or do both have to be prevalent to exist? Where do you see Radcliffe using terror? Where do you see her using horror? Where so you see Walpole using horror/terror? Does one use horror/terror more effectively? How?

***If there is time, describe the differences between the original "Frozen" trailer vs. the "Frozen: Horror" trailer? What effect did the horror version have on you? How was the castle used? Compare and contrast the change of scenery.

Don't Look Under the Bed: An Analysis of Fear and Emotion

In Edmund Burke's essay on the sublime, he describes the concept in a way that points to terror as the driving principle behind sublimity. He argues, "No passion robs the mind of all its powers of acting and reasoning as fear. For fear being an apprehension of pain or death, it operates in a manner that resembles actual pain. Whatever therefore is terrible, with regard to sight, is sublime too," (Burke 133). When considering this idea of the sublime in light of today's reading of A Sicilian Romance, we begin to unearth sublimity everywhere we look: behind every locked door of the castle, around every moonlit encounter with an ominous and gloomy cave. Radcliffe's ability to quickly shift the novel's language from light and cheery to dark and depressing reveals an impressive talent to portray pure emotion, toying with her own knowledge of the sublime.

If Gothic novels have made anything clear thus far, it is that emotion and a dash of religion are the reigning powers in the castle. Still clearer is the brute force by which those in charge come under the influence of these powers; the marquis alone represents the most angry and fearsome character, apart from the castle itself. A colorful reminder of this can be found on page 114 of the novel, when the marquis is overcome by a fit of rage spurred on by nothing but the pure helplessness of his situation: "the violence of his nature spurned the disguise of art, and burst forth in contemptuous impeachment of the valour and discernment of the duke, who soon retorted with equal fury. The consequence might have been fatal," Radcliffe goes on to describe the inner passions of the marquis and the duke alike, and, realizing that their woes are the same, they subside.

Each character in the novel encounters fear of the sublime to a certain extent, and only a handful of these are able to escape the gripping paralysis of terror and enter some realm of understanding. It is with careful precision that Radcliffe chooses who will embody this concept, and pious characters like Cornelia the nun, the monks and superiors, as well as the Abate tend toward a humble, spiritual understanding of the sublime. Cornelia's speech on page 121 reveals the importance of this discovery as she recounts the tales of her past woes with a calm and certain disposition; this point is crucial in Julia's development of understanding. Here she finds a companion through mutual sorrows, and the wisdom of emotional strength is passed from the nun to herself.

Not everybody is so lucky or so easily enlightened, however. In the ironic double pursuit of both Julia and the other nobleman's daughter, fate and luck are on the side of the runaways, and those in pursuit are met with nothing but confusion, fear, and rage. In a Gothic aristocrat these three words appear synonymous; the nobleman gets confused, he gets scared, and then he gets angry. As we have seen with the marquis and several other characters, there is no thought process, rationalization, or sensibility in the blind rage or fear exhibited through frustrations of the unknown, or the sublime.

On page 84 of the text, the duke and his company are scared out of their wits by the darkness, the very epitome of the unknown. "They... found themselves bewildered in a wild and savage country. Their only remaining care was to extricate themselves from so forlorn a situation, and they listened at every step with anxious attention for some sound that might discover them to the haunts of men. They listened in vain," because, of course, there was nothing there. A Sicilian Romance is colored with descriptions just as ominous as this one, with just as little evidence supporting the company's fear.

It's interesting to look at how the novel thrives on the excitement of pure emotion, and even more so how Radcliffe manipulates the characters to explore her own struggle with emotions and the sublime. "In common with many writers of her generation, Ann Radcliffe consciously harnessed her experiences of intense emotional distress, which she had learned to overcome and control through minute exhaustive re-creations of what she absorbed from learned books and careful study of engravings," from A Landscape of Memory. Radcliffe reflects her own negative, irrational emotions into the roles of those conspiring against Julia, and in turn reflects her discovered enlightenment in those who provide her aid and safety. It is possible Radcliffe embodies herself, her fears, and her wonders in Julia. For more information on Radcliffe's career and how it reflected in her work, refer to the link, A Landscape of Memory.

How does the sublime manifest itself in Radcliffe's descriptions of scenery, and to what extent do these amplify or quiet the emotions of present characters?

Which characters appear more (or less) emotionally well-equipped to deal with prospects of the sublime, and what might have motivated Radcliffe to assign these roles?

Stories Within Stories: The Importance of Anecdotes

Context is important when reading and examining a literary text. Readers need to be able to refer to other pieces of information in order to grasp their selected story better. Anecdotes provide readers with such information. They provide us with the necessary background and contextual information while, at the same time, preventing the novel from slowing down or losing focus. Anecdotes in A Sicilian Romance are vital for providing readers with exposition on the world of the text and for grasping at the emotional complexity of the characters in the novel.

The novel features many characters of varying emotional ranges. They have experienced a lot before and during the events of the novel. One character who has a rather important anecdote is Cornelia in Chapter IX. Cornelia is a nun and caretaker for Julia, but she is also born from a father who was once in possession of a great fortune. When her father had his great fortune, Cornelia fell in love with a young man from a much poorer family. Her father forbid the marriage, but Marquis Marinelli caught wind of Cornelia and asked for her hand in marriage. Her options were to either wed the marquis or to take up the veil. Cornelia chose to take the veil and enter the nunnery.

Cornelia's story continues to examine her own time at her nunnery and the significant events that shape her experience as well as her own self from that point forward. She mentions how the "tranquility of the monastery" and "devotional exercises" soothed her in her time of emotional turmoil. Cornelia also talks about her "excess of grief," and her "youthful intercourse" with her suitor. This is in direct contrast to Julia's hot tempered and impatient disposition. Readers are given a portrait of a Cornelia who has expressed a very wide range of emotions. Radcliffe is presenting readers a very dynamic world where even supporting characters such as Cornelia are given multiple layers for the reader to examine.

The nun is not the only character to recount an anecdote that is important to the story. The marquis, beginning on page 52, recounts the truth about the castle of Mazzini. He tells the story to Ferdinand that when he first inherited the castle the marquis father had Henry della Campo watched and imprisoned in the southern part of the castle. Henry passed away in the southern part of the castle, but after his death that part of the castle was always haunted.

Such an anecdote not only provides us with an emotional look at the marquis and Ferdinand, an explanation to some of the actions by several characters, such as the marquis, and sets the stage for the rest of the book. The main reason the anecdote is placed where it is in the book seems to be to provide readers with necessary background information. Readers learn why the marquis stays away from the castle as much as he can and why the rest of the characters do not know the full contents of the castle. The novel would read as a much different novel.

A Sicilian Romance depends on several anecdotes throughout the course of the novel to help support its plot and the emotions of the characters. What if the novel did not have those explanations? What if other famous novels and movies did not explain important exposition that was one of several backbones of the novel? What if a novel such as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone did not have Hagrid, in the link below, informing Harry about how his parents died? Harry would go onto Hogwarts and everyone would know his name, but not how he died. The novel would have to focus on a completely different Harry, both emotionally and literally. He may have spent the majority of the novel confused and shut away from potential friends. Maybe he would never have met Ron or Hermione. The story also may have resonated differently with others. It could have been a completely different experience.

Many elements of character development as well as world building in novels are sometimes left unattended to. We as readers may be asking ourselves too many questions throughout the novel. "What is this doing here?" "How does she know about that?" Ann Radcliffe manages to answer many of our questions and prevent further confusion by assigning informative anecdotes to certain characters throughout her novel. She also uses them as a tool for readers to understand and compare the emotional complexes of the different characters. I think the short bits of exposition are an important and useful tool in any literary sense. It helps create a mature and streamlined process. 

Discussion Questions

What other characters have important anecdotes throughout A Sicilian Romance? Do these short stories affect just the characters who are telling them or do they affect the characters around them? 

Does a character's anecdote provide more necessary background information for the story or their state of mind?

Can You Count a Castle as a Character?

Gothic novels are easy to spot. Even without studying the subject for an extended period of time, we are familiar with the archetype through the now clichéd themes which it first employed; preternatural occurences, decaying castles, curses, prophesies, swooning damsels, and dastardly villains. Like Horace Walpole, Ann Radcliffe also commands control over the basic outline of a standard Gothic drama. Interestingly, one of the sometimes overlooked features of these novels is found in the very beginning, carefully woven into the opening paragraphs.

In both The Castle of Otranto and A Sicilian Romance, the writers begin by describing an ancient, landed family in the exotic-to-the-English-readers locale of Italy. They go through the families, listing each member and, later on, providing a character sketch of each person. The patriarch is usually the first person to be described, followed by his loving and dutiful wife, and then his children and heirs. Yet, there is something that they mention within the very first sentence. Something that, although it is not a person either living or dead, it is a character. What I am describing is the castle.

Yes, I said castle. Before you pounce on me shouting how can a building be a character in a story, let me explain myself and my thinking. 

Scottish Castle, what readers of the time would be familiar with.

Italian Castle, similar in architecture to Radcliffe's Sicilian castle.

There is a short preface before the story begins and the castle is first brought up. The setting is described visually, how there is a hill and on can see both the sea and grand woods. But then it shifts a bit. The unknown, unnamed narrator then details her thoughts as she draws in the crumbling stone edifices. She imagines what it may have looked like inhabited and taken care of. It is because of the castle that she asks for more information. The friar tells her that the walls “were once the seat of luxury and vice. They exhibited a singular instance of the retribution of Heaven, and were from that period forsaken, and abandoned to decay” (1)  This piqued her interest and she investigated further. She next presents the story she “found”, much like Walpole’s story in his first preface.

The castle is introduced in the same way as Ferdinand and the women of his family. Within the first paragraph, these people are listed and given brief descriptions. After this, each character is described a bit more in depth, focusing on deportments, similarities, and unique characteristics. Just after Madame is presented, the castle gets described in a similar way. Similarly to the temperament of the Mazzini daughters which was detailed in the preceding paragraphs, the nature of the rooms of the old castle is presented. The girls were lively and uneasy, sensible and sentimental. The castle was forlorn and melancholic, elegant and pleasant. Such fine detail is given for both, and it is hard to not focus on the castle as much as Emilia and Julia.

This evidence is striking on its own, but A Sicilian Romance is not alone in using a bit of setting as an important feature in the plot and story. Walpole also takes time to carefully describe the castle in his novel. In The Castle of Otranto, the castle holds the mysteries of the bloodline, the escape for Isabella, the gallery of the devil, and the pieces of the giant. Even the descendants of the Gothic genre often feature a setting which acts as more than just when and where. In Edgar Allan Poe’s The Fall of the House of Usher, the House of Usher acts as an extension of Roderick Usher. The House suffers and decays as Roderick does. It is described greatly in depth, just as Roderick is. These locations, the House of Usher and the castle of The Caste of Otranto are even in the titles, drawing more attention to their significance.

There is a lot of evidence one can use to argue that the setting of Gothic stories can be featured as characters. These are just a couple of examples. Another example I came across is found here in the form of an analysis of another gothic tale, The Woman in White.

And just for kicks and giggles, here is a link to a Buzzfeed post called "29 Gorgeous Castles from Around the World".

Discussion Questions:

Does the castle keep up importance the whole time? Or are there bursts where it is focused more? What are other instances of the castle being portrayed like a character? Do you see any more similarities between The Castle of Otranto and A Sicilian Romance?